Introduction
Impact on Teaching and Learning
Pedagogical Transformation and Classroom Practices
Research demonstrates that the implementation of 1:1 devices fundamentally transforms instructional practices when properly supported. Peled, Blau, and Grinberg (2022) conducted a five-year longitudinal study examining teachers implementing one-to-one computing in a junior high school. Their research, which triangulated classroom observations with semi-structured interviews, revealed that while 1:1 computing enables teachers to improve their teaching skills and expand their educational repertoire, the depth of pedagogical change varies significantly based on implementation quality and ongoing professional support. The study employed the SAMR framework to assess the level of technological integration, finding that sustained implementation over multiple years was necessary for teachers to move beyond simple substitution toward more transformative uses of technology.
The shift toward student-centered learning is a consistent theme across recent research. Nieves (2021) explored how 1:1 device initiatives offer inclusionary practices by providing all students within a school access to their own device, with particular benefits for students with disabilities in inclusion settings. The research highlighted that built-in accessibility features and strategic implementation can create more equitable learning environments when teachers receive adequate training on these capabilities.
Student Engagement and Digital Literacy
Power, Musgrove, and Nichols (2020) investigated 1:1 computing implementation in a small rural school district using mixed-method approaches. Their findings indicated that teachers’ perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of 1:1 technology were significant predictors of both whole-class and individualized instruction. The qualitative analysis showed that teachers used 1:1 devices largely to foster digital literacy and collaboration as well as to conduct student assessment. Key motivations for integration included increasing student engagement, personalizing learning, and facilitating teacher productivity.
The development of digital literacy skills has become increasingly important in 1:1 environments. Research indicates that technology integration makes learning more engaging for approximately 76% of students, while 90% of teachers report that technology helps them assess student learning more effectively. However, the manner in which devices are used significantly impacts outcomes—students who primarily used digital devices for learning purposes achieved significantly higher grades compared to those using devices for non-learning or multipurpose usage.
Rural and Underserved Contexts
The “digital divide” remains a critical concern in 1:1 implementation. A 2024 literature review examining technology integration in rural schools identified 29 distinct challenges categorized across macro, meso, and micro levels. While 1:1 programs improve computer access for students from low-income families, rural schools face pronounced challenges, including limited internet connectivity, outdated hardware, and fewer professional development opportunities compared to their urban and suburban counterparts.
Power et al.’s (2020) research in rural contexts demonstrated that even in resource-constrained environments, 1:1 programs can be successful when implementation focuses on teacher support and practical applications. Districts providing 1:1 devices report up to a 30% improvement in student engagement and a 25% increase in assignment completion rates, with the most significant improvements occurring among previously underserved student populations.
Budgetary and Resource Implications
Infrastructure and Device Costs
According to EdTech Evidence Exchange data, K-12 schools spent between $26 billion and $41 billion annually on education technology prior to the pandemic, with costs rising substantially since 2020. On average, schools spend approximately $306 per student on technology, networks, and relevant staffing. However, device costs can vary considerably across districts.
Infrastructure requirements extend beyond device acquisition. Approximately 74% of districts now meet the 1 Mbps-per-student benchmark, a significant increase from just 8% in 2015. However, more than a quarter of schools still lack the infrastructure required for effective device management. The typical refresh cycle for student devices ranges from four to six years, requiring districts to plan for long-term replacement costs and budget accordingly.
Sustainability
With the sunset of ESSER (Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief) funding, maintaining 1:1 programs presents significant ongoing challenges. A 2025 survey of 241 schools found that almost 52% of districts worry about the long-term viability of their programs due to budget constraints. This concern is particularly acute given that 90% of educators report having at least one device for every middle and high school student by March 2021, representing a massive expansion driven by pandemic necessity rather than strategic planning. Districts are pursuing various strategies to sustain programs, including:
• Treating devices as predictable operational expenses rather than one-time capital investments
• Implementing four-to-five-year device refresh cycles
• Selling off devices at the four- or five-year mark while they retain value
• Establishing student IT task forces to assist with device management and repairs
• Pursuing refurbished device programs that can save up to 40% on purchase costs
• Diversifying funding sources through grants, partnerships, and state-funded initiatives
Implementation Challenges and Success Factors
Professional Development Requirements
Research consistently emphasizes that high-quality, ongoing professional development is critical for successful 1:1 implementation. Peled et al.’s (2022) longitudinal study demonstrated that without adequate professional development and technical support, teachers struggle to create learning environments where pedagogy drives technology use rather than technology driving instruction. However, when teachers receive strong support, they typically integrate devices effectively within one year and continue developing more sophisticated uses over time.
The nature of professional development matters significantly. Training must be context-specific, addressing teachers’ diverse needs and motivations rather than offering one-size-fits-all solutions. A 2024 study examining digital technology integration practices identified six distinct teacher profiles—from “Motivating Facilitators” to “Depth Divers”—each requiring different types of support to
maximize technology’s educational potential.
Digital Citizenship and Online Safety
As 1:1 programs expand, concerns about online safety, appropriate use, and digital citizenship have become paramount. Between July 2023 and December 2024, 82% of K-12 organizations experienced cyber incidents, including more than 9,300 confirmed data breaches. While 98% of educators consider digital citizenship essential, only 36% report adequate training and resources to teach these skills effectively. This gap represents a significant challenge that districts must address through comprehensive digital citizenship curricula and ongoing training for both students and teachers.
Conclusions and Implications
The research literature examined here demonstrates that 1:1 device programs can positively impact student achievement, engagement, and learning outcomes when implemented with attention to several critical factors:
1. Pedagogical Integration: Technology must enhance rather than replace effective teaching practices. Successful programs focus on using devices to enable personalized learning, collaborative work, and higher-order thinking skills.
2. Professional Development: Ongoing, job-embedded professional development is essential. Teachers need sustained support to develop technological pedagogical knowledge and transform their instructional practices.
3. Equity Considerations: While 1:1 programs improve device access, they do not automatically close achievement gaps. Schools must address digital literacy gaps, ensure home internet access, and provide equitable support systems.
4. Financial Sustainability: Long-term success requires treating technology as an ongoing operational expense rather than a one-time initiative. Districts must develop strategic financial plans that account for device refresh cycles, infrastructure upgrades, and IT support.
5. Context Matters: Rural, suburban, and urban districts face different challenges. Successful implementation requires solutions tailored to local contexts, resources, and community needs.
The expansion of 1:1 device programs represents a significant transformation in K-12 education. The most recent research confirms that these programs can enhance learning when properly implemented, but success is far from automatic. The benefits—improved engagement, personalized learning opportunities, and enhanced 21stcentury skills development—depend heavily on implementation quality, ongoing support, and alignment with pedagogical goals.
Financial sustainability remains the most pressing challenge facing districts as emergency pandemic funding expires. With approximately 90% of middle and high schools now providing 1:1 device access, the question is no longer whether to implement these programs but how to sustain and improve them. Districts must balance the demonstrated educational benefits with long-term financial realities, developing creative approaches to cost management while maintaining equitable access for all students.
As technology continues evolving and becoming increasingly integral to education and workforce preparation, 1:1 programs will likely remain central to K-12 education. The research suggests that success requires more than just providing devices—it demands a comprehensive approach encompassing professional development, technical support, digital citizenship education, and sustainable funding models. Districts that address these interconnected elements holistically are most likely to realize the full educational potential of 1:1 device programs.
References
Nieves, K. (2021). Building inclusive learning environments with 1:1 devices. Teaching Exceptional Children, 53(6),
440-449. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162643420923069
Peled, Y., Blau, I., & Grinberg, R. (2022). Crosschecking teachers’ perspectives on learning in a one-to-one
environment with their actual classroom behavior—A longitudinal study. Education and Information Technologies, 27(4),
4841-4864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10809-4
Power, J. R., Musgrove, A. T., & Nichols, B. H. (2020). Teachers bridging the digital divide in rural schools with 1:1 computing.
The Rural Educator, 41(1), 61-76. https://doi.org/10.35608/ruraled.v41i1.576
